Two Sides North America examines paper composting infrastructure and end-of-life pathways; paper industry continues to innovate, developing coatings and treatments that enhance paper compostability while maintaining benefits of traditional packaging

May 7, 2025 (press release) –

Submitted: Two Sides North America May 7, 2025

It’s important for companies and consumers to understand the end-of-life pathways for paper materials, like paper recycling or composting, so that they can make smart choices. Exploring the compostability or biodegradability of various types of paper and the advancements in bio-based coatings can help organizations make informed decisions that align with environmental sustainability at a time when consumers are demanding sustainability and transparency around practices.

The Journey of Non-Recycled Paper

When paper products are not recycled, they typically end up in landfills. In these anaerobic environments, organic materials like paper decompose slowly, potentially releasing methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Alternatively, some paper waste may be processed through combustion with energy recovery, contributing to energy production but also emitting carbon dioxide. Recycling paper products, which can be collected and reused to make new products, is the ideal solution, but recycling infrastructure can vary from state to state, even city to city. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and American Forest and Paper Association (AF&PA) estimate U.S. paper recycling at 65%-69%. Composting presents another alternative, diverting paper waste from landfills and transforming it into valuable organic matter that enriches soil. However, only a handful of states currently offer curbside compost collection. Learn more about the U.S. composting infrastructure with this interactive map from GreenBlue. 

A recent review of literatureInternational Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 11 Issue: 10 | Oct 2024 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 Paper Bio-degradation in Composting Systems: Analyzing Environmental Impact and Process Optimization Khushi Gurukar1, Pranjali Gurukar2, Dipti Lilhare3, Mr. Rajat S. Yadav4 1Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Kavikulguru Institute of Technology & Science, Ramtek. 2Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Kavikulguru Institute of Technology & Science, Ramtek. 3Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Kavikulguru Institute of Technology & Science, Ramtek. 4Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Kavikulguru Institute of Technology & Science, Ramtek. ---------------------------------------------------------------------***--------------------------------------------------------------------- Abstract - The biodegradability of different types of paper to peat-based substrates in organic farming. Paper sludge, a was tested in compost environments. Newsprint without ink byproduct of paper de-inking, can be composted to improve degraded fully in 18 days, while inked newsprint degraded soil organic matter. However, it requires careful management slower due to lignin and metal-based inks. Glossy and recycled to avoid nutrient immobilization and the presence of papers degraded faster, within 14 and 16 days, respectively. contaminants, which are reduced during composting. Composting paper with manure transforms carbon into stable In summary, paper waste can be effectively composted to forms, enriching soil health. Nitrogen is converted into plant- improve soil health, though factors such as ink, lignin, and available forms, aiding long-term soil fertility. Compost contamination levels affect biodegradability. Composting stability increases as more resistant organic materials are reduces greenhouse gas emissions compared to landfilling and synthesized. Composting reduces landfill waste, methane is a sustainable waste management solution. emissions, and air pollution, while promoting recycling. It is economically viable and crucial for waste management Key Words: Biodegradation, Composting, sustainability. Combining paper waste with activated charcoal Vermicomposting, Paper waste, Green waste, and vermicomposting produces nutrient-rich fertilizers, Greenhouse Gas, Methane Emission especially in India, and can be used for sustainable agriculture. Research shows that most paper types, including white and 1. INTRODUCTION recycled paper, do not meet biodegradation standards within 45 days, requiring longer composting times to fully In recent years, researchers have explored the decompose. Anaerobic digestion is the most efficient waste environmental benefits of composting, particularly with treatment method for biodegradable materials, combining paper products and organic waste. Composting turns organic energy recovery with soil conditioning. Composting can waste into valuable soil amendments, helping to reduce sometimes emit more greenhouse gases than landfilling, landfill use, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and create though it avoids methane production. Lignin content reduces nutrient-rich fertilizers. However, different types of paper paper biodegradability. Optimal degradation occurs at 40- and organic waste degrade at varying rates, depending on 50°C, aided by thermophilic fungi. The manufacturing process factors like the presence of ink, lignin content, and the of paper affects its degradation rates. Organic matter in composting process used. Studies have shown that compost stabilizes as easily degradable compounds break newsprint paper, especially with ink, decomposes slower down. Composting mixtures of green waste, bio waste, and than glossy or recycled papers due to its chemical paper require a balance for optimal organic matter composition. Ink and lignin resist biodegradation, especially stabilization. Composting reduces methane emissions in nutrient-rich environments. Other research focuses on compared to landfilling, which is a major source of global composting's ability to stabilize organic matter, releasing greenhouse gases. While both systems have environmental nutrients gradually and supporting long-term soil health. impacts, composting is generally more proactive in reducing emissions. Vermicomposting produces finer compost particles Moreover, integrating waste paper into composting systems, with lower nutrient content but is more efficient in managing particularly when combined with organic materials like paper waste. Windrow composting yields higher nutrient animal manure, has been proven to improve the soil’s levels but has more heavy metals, affecting its application in nutrient content and reduce environmental pollutants. agriculture. Different waste types emit varying levels of CO2 Composting is widely recognized as a sustainable alternative and ammonia during composting. Food waste generates the to traditional waste disposal methods like landfilling, which highest emissions, while mixed paper waste produces the least. contributes significantly to methane emissions. While This helps predict environmental impacts of composting composting can emit some greenhouse gases, its overall different materials. Composting organic materials like environmental impact is less harmful than landfills, manure, orange peels, and wheat straw can improve soil especially when combined with effective waste management health and suppress plant diseases. It is an effective alternative strategies. Composting paper waste not only reduces the © 2024, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 8.315 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 166 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 11 Issue: 10 | Oct 2024 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 environmental burden of waste disposal but also provides a nutrient-rich fertilizers that enhance soil health. Lab results sustainable solution for enhancing soil health and show the anaerobic compost has a pH of 8.3, higher moisture agricultural productivity. content, and slightly better nutrient levels than aerobic compost. Both types are free from pathogens and heavy 2. LITERATURE REVIEW metals, making them safe and effective for sustainable agriculture. S. Ahmed et al. (2018) The study investigated the biodegradation of different types of paper (newsprint with J. V. Lopez Alvarez et al. (2009) Spain's municipal solid and without ink, recycled paper, and glossy paper) in a waste (MSW) management produces 17.3 million tonnes of compost environment. Paper strips were buried in a organic waste annually, with compost quality often nutrient-rich compost mixture and sampled at intervals to compromised due to high levels of waste paper (12–27%). measure degradation through tensile strength tests. Research indicates that none of the tested papers, such as Key Findings: white, cardboard, or Kraft, reach the 70% biodegradation standard within 45 days, mainly due to non-biodegradable  Newsprint without ink biodegraded fully in 18 days. components like lignin. Only white and recycled papers may biodegrade effectively if composted longer, over 110 days.  Newsprint with ink took longer than 21 days and did not These findings underscore the need for improved fully degrade. composting techniques and selective waste management to  Glossy paper and recycled paper degraded faster, within enhance compost quality. 14 and 16 days, respectively. B. G. Hermann et al. (2011) In this article we compared the The slower degradation of inked newsprint is attributed to carbon and energy footprints from forty peso waste the lignin in the paper and the metals in the ink, which resist treatment of biodegradable materials. Not All material are breakdown and increase compost acidity. suitable for all types of biological treatment, PLA For example does not degrade in home composting intemperate T. Pare et al. (1998) Composting animal manure and Climate sand PBAT and mechanical pulp do not degrade in shredded paper transforms carbon and nitrogen into stable an aerobic digestion. In term so waste treatment types, we forms that enhance soil. Initially, carbon content drops focussed on Industrial composting, home composting in quickly as it converts to carbon dioxide, stabilizing after temperate climates, Anaerobic digestion and waste about a month. Nitrogen is converted into plant-available incineration. Of these waste treatment options, digestion is forms like ammonium and nitrate, though some is lost during the most favourable for biodegradable Materials for the time composting. The study found that a significant portion of being because it combines energy recovery With the carbon is easily accessible to microbes early on, but as production of digestive, which can be used data soil compost matures, it becomes less degradable, releasing Conditioner. Home composting is roughly equal to nutrients more slowly when added to soil, which supports incineration with energy recovery, with small differences long-term soil health. across materials; Industrial composting is worse than home composting because Lower credits are assigned to the Saleh Ali Tweib et al. (2011) Composting is an resulting compost. environmentally sustainable practice that offers a superior alternative to simply dumping organic waste into the earth. M. Vikman et al. (2002) A strong correlation between lignin Rather than contributing to landfills, composting transforms content in paper products and their biodegradability. Higher organic waste into valuable products with multiple benefits. lignin levels typically reduce biodegradation, particularly at These include reducing landfill space, minimizing the risk of higher composting temperatures like 58°C. Optimal lignin surface and groundwater contamination, cutting down on degradation occurs at temperatures between 40°C and 50°C, methane emissions, lowering transportation costs, and facilitated by thermophilic fungi. Paper products' decreasing air pollution from burning waste. Additionally, biodegradability also depends on their manufacturing composting enhances the overall flexibility of waste process, with mechanical pulp being more degradable than management, promotes recycling, and can be implemented other types with similar lignin content. The European with minimal capital and operating costs. By converting standard EN 13432 now recognizes chemically unmodified waste into a resource, composting plays a crucial role in paper products as biodegradable, though they must still protecting our environment and fostering a circular meet specific disintegration and ecotoxicity criteria. economy. Cedric Francou et al. (2008)The study investigated how A.K. Raj Kumar et al. (2020) Paper waste can be varying proportions of green waste, bio waste, and paper- repurposed into organic compost, reducing reliance on cardboard in compost mixtures affect organic matter (OM) harmful chemical fertilizers. In India, where paper waste is evolution during composting. plentiful, combining it with activated charcoal and Key findings include: vermicomposting through anaerobic digestion creates © 2024, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 8.315 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 167 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 11 Issue: 10 | Oct 2024 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072  OM stabilization during composting involves the P lant Growth Performance: When used in growing media, degradation of easily biodegradable materials both compost types showed similar effectiveness for (cellulose, hemicellulose), the relative increase of more growing tomatoes, marigolds, and radishes, provided they resistant compounds (lignin), microbial synthesis of were adjusted for nutrient levels and EC. However, high EC resistant biomolecules, and unification processes. in windrow compost negatively affected plant growth in  Green waste showed minimal OM stabilization due to its some trials. high lignin content.  Moderate amounts of paper-cardboard (20–40%) Operational Efficiency: Vermicomposting effectively allowed for favourable OM stabilization, while larger transformed paper-based waste into finer compost particles amounts (over 50%) hindered stabilization, likely due to and had lower overall nutrient and potential toxic element nitrogen deficiency. (PTE) levels compared to windrow composting. Bio wastes impacted composting mainly at the start due to their high levels of easily biodegradable material. Overall, while both methods produced compost with comparable growth performance when adjusted, the choice X. F. Lou & J. Nair (2009) The impact of various waste between them may depend on specific nutrient needs and management (WM) strategies on greenhouse gas (GHG) regulatory considerations. emissions. Prior to the mid-1990s, waste management Dimitris P. Komilis (2006) Composting municipal solid focused mainly on public health and safety and optimizing waste (MSW) can either pre-treat waste before landfilling or landfill gas capture. Recently, the emphasis has shifted to produce soil amendments. The two main gases emitted addressing the role of waste in GHG emissions, as waste during composting are carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse management now accounts for about 5% of global GHG gas, and ammonia (NH3), which is both an air pollutant and emissions, primarily methane (CH4) from landfills and malodorous. Key contributors to these emissions are paper, carbon dioxide (CO2) from wastewater. food, and yard wastes, which are the primary biodegradable components of MSW. Studies have focused on measuring the The paper discusses the common WM practice of landfilling reduction of organic materials and the capture of emitted and its associated GHG emissions compared to composting. gases. Various experiments have been conducted to measure Landfills produce significant CH4 due to anaerobic CO2 and NH3 from different organic waste mixtures, decomposition, contributing more to GHG emissions than employing laboratory-scale digesters and different composting. Although landfill mitigation strategies like substrates, including paper, food, and yard wastes. energy recovery and aeration can reduce emissions, composting is generally more effective in reducing GHG Recent studies aimed to quantify CO2 and NH3 emissions emissions because it avoids the production of CH4. from these main waste components and their mixtures to develop a predictive model. This model, based on The review notes that while composting is proactive and experimental data, helps estimate emissions from various aims to minimize negative environmental impacts, landfilling MSW compositions. The findings show that food waste (FW) often serves as a reactive measure. However, operational generates the highest CO2 and NH3 emissions, followed by emissions can vary, with composting potentially emitting yard waste (YW) and mixed paper waste (MXP), with MXP more GHGs than landfills in some cases. Despite producing the least. The model developed allows for improvements in waste management, landfills will remain predicting emissions from different MSW mixtures, aiding in necessary for some waste. Therefore, reducing waste the assessment of their environmental impact. Overall, the production and diverting waste to appropriate management study concludes that while the CO2 emissions are linear with facilities are crucial for minimizing overall environmental respect to the amount of each component, NH3 emissions impact. depend heavily on the initial nitrogen content and are influenced by the interaction between different waste Jim Frederickson et al. (2007) This research paper components. compares the effectiveness of two composting systems: a combined system of in-vessel thermophilic composting Michael Raviv et al. (2005) This research examines the use followed by vermicomposting, and a traditional system of in- of compost as an alternative substrate to soil for organic vessel composting followed by windrow composting. Key farming, particularly in areas where fertile soil is scarce. findings include: Traditionally, organic farming relies heavily on soil, which can present challenges due to nutrient limitations or Nutrient and Physico-Chemical Properties: Vermicomposting diseases. However, compost has the potential to not only produced compost with a higher proportion of fine particles replace soil but also supply essential nutrients and suppress and lower pH compared to windrow composting. Windrow diseases. compost had higher levels of total nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and electrical conductivity (EC), but also The study involved mixing fresh cow manure with different higher concentrations of some heavy metals. organic materials such as orange peels, grape marc, and © 2024, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 8.315 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 168 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 11 Issue: 10 | Oct 2024 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 wheat straw to create composts with varying properties. 3. CONCLUSIONS These composts were tested for their physical, chemical, and horticultural characteristics. Results demonstrated that Papers like newsprint without ink, recycled paper, and compost, especially those made with orange peels or wheat glossy paper degrade in compost environments within 14 to straw, can release significant amounts of nitrogen, improving 21 days, though inked newsprint degrades slower due to plant growth and yields when compared to conventional lignin and metal content. Glossy and recycled papers peat-based substrates. Additionally, compost showed degrade faster than newsprint. Composting organic waste, promising results in suppressing pests like nematodes and including paper, provides multiple environmental benefits, pathogens that cause root and crown rot in cherry tomatoes. such as reducing landfill space, minimizing methane Overall, the study suggests that compost can be a viable emissions, and producing nutrient-rich compost for soil substitute for soil in organic farming, offering both enhancement. Composting paper waste, in particular, can nutritional and disease-suppressing benefits. replace chemical fertilizers and improve soil quality sustainably. High lignin content in paper slows down its Chantal J. Beauchamp et al. (2002) Reid (1997) reports biodegradation, and municipal solid waste (MSW) with that in Canada, significant amounts of pulp and paper waste paper content often falls short of biodegradation standards. were disposed of via combustion or landfilling. Specifically, Composting can emit greenhouse gases like CO2 and Quebec produced substantial amounts of de-inking paper ammonia, though emissions are generally lower than those sludge (DPS), which contains organic carbon and various from landfilling. Vermicomposting and anaerobic digestion contaminants. are effective methods for treating paper and organic waste. Vermicomposting produces finer compost with lower heavy 2. De-inking Paper Sludge (DPS) Composition: Latva-Somppi metals, while anaerobic digestion offers the added benefit of et al. (1994) found DPS contains 45-85% organic carbon, energy recovery. Compost quality depends on the balance of primarily cellulose fibers, which impacts its ability to green and paper waste in mixtures. Composting helps enhance soil organic matter. However, its high C:N ratio mitigate greenhouse gas emissions compared to landfilling, means it initially immobilizes nitrogen and phosphorus in though it requires proper management to minimize soil. Chantigny et al. (1999) noted that DPS can improve soil emissions and optimize compost quality. but requires proper management to avoid nutrient immobilization. In conclusion, while paper waste can be effectively composted, factors like lignin content, ink, and composting 3. Composting Process and Effects: Brouillette et al. (1996) conditions influence biodegradation rates. Composting explain that composting involves microbial degradation of remains a sustainable method for waste management, organic matter, including sugars and cellulose in DPS, provided that it is carefully controlled to maximize leading to stabilized compost. Chong and Cline (1991) environmental benefits and minimize potential risks. emphasize that composting increases temperature and microbial activity, which are crucial for breaking down DPS 4. REFERENCES components. [1] S. Ahmed, “Biodegradation of Different Types of Paper in 4. Contaminants in DPS and Compost: Yu and Mohn (1991) a Compost Environment”, International Conference on found that resin- and fatty acids in DPS are degraded during Natural Sciences and Technology (ICNST’18), composting, with most disappearing within 24 weeks, http://www.researchgate.net/publication/341050000, leaving only residual compounds like abietic acid. Menzie et 2018. al. (1992) highlighted that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in DPS decrease over time, with none detected after [2] T. Pare, “Transformations of carbon and nitrogen during 24 weeks of composting, indicating effective degradation. composting of animal manure and shredded paper”, 5. Environmental Impact and Management: Bellamy et al. Springer-Verlag, Biol Fertile Soils, 1998. (1995) suggest that while DPS contains potentially toxic compounds like resin acids and PAHs, proper composting [3] Saleh Ali Tweib, “A literature review on composting”, and management reduce their environmental impact. International Conference on Environment and Industrial Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines (CCME, 1999) Innovations, 2011. provide thresholds for contaminants such as naphthalene, underscoring the need to monitor and manage DPS compost [4] A. K. Raj Kumar, “Utilization of Paper Waste for the applications to avoid exceeding soil quality standards. Production of Organic Compost”, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and While DPS has beneficial uses in soil amendment, careful Technology, 2020. management and composting are crucial to mitigate potential environmental risks. © 2024, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 8.315 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 169 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 11 Issue: 10 | Oct 2024 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 [5] J. V. Lopez Alvarez, “Biodegradation of paper waste under controlled composting conditions”, Waste Management 29 (1), p1514-1519, 2009 [6] B. G. Hermann, “To Compost or not to compost: Carbon and energy footprints of biodegradable materials waste treatment”, Polymer Degradation and Stability 96 (2011) p1159-1171. [7] M. Vikman, “The Influence of lignin content and temperature on the biodegadation of lignocellulose in composting conditions”, Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2002) 59 p591-598 http://doi.org/10.1007/s00253- 002-1029-1. [8] Cedric Francou, “Influence of green waste, biowaste and paper-cardboard initial ratios on organic matter transformations during composting”, Bioresourse Technology 99 (2008) p8926-8934. [9] X.F. Lou & J. Nair, “The impact of landfilling and composting on greenhouse gas emissions”, Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 3792–3798. [10] Jim Frederickson, Graham Howell, Andrew M. Hobson, “Effect of pre-composting and vermicomposting on compost characteristics”, European Journal of Soil Biology 43 (2007) S320-S326. [11] Dimitris P. Komilis, “A kinetic analysis of solid waste composting at optimal conditions”, Waste Management 26 (2006) 82–91. [12] Michael Raviv, Yuji Oka, Jaacov Katan, Yitzhak Hadar, Anat Yogev, Shlomit Medina, Arkady Krasnovsky, Hammam Ziadna, “High-nitrogen compost as a medium for organic container-grown crops”, Bioresource Technology 96 (2005) 419–427. [13] Chantal J. Beauchamp, Marie-Helene Charest, Andre Gosselin, “Examination of environmental quality of raw and composting de-inking paper sludge”, Chemosphere 46 (2002) 887–895. © 2024, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 8.315 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 170 in the International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, found that paper waste can be “effectively composted to improve soil health, though factors such as ink, lignin, and contamination levels affect biodegradability. Composting reduces greenhouse gas emissions compared to landfilling and is a sustainable waste management solution.” Interestingly, glossy and recycled papers degraded more quickly than newsprint.

Compostable vs. Biodegradable: Clarifying the Terms

It’s essential to distinguish between “biodegradable” and “compostable.” While all compostable materials are biodegradable, not all biodegradable materials are compostable. “Biodegradable” refers to the breakdown of materials by microorganisms into natural substances like water, carbon dioxide, and biomass. However, this process lacks specificity regarding the time frame and environmental conditions required; therefore, it is not an appropriate marketing term to describe the sustainability of a product. In contrast, “compostable” materials not only biodegrade but do so within a specific time frame under composting conditions, leaving no toxic residue. This distinction is crucial for proper waste management and environmental impact.

Effectiveness of Paper Composting Based on Paper Types

The compostability of paper largely depends on its composition and any added treatments. Uncoated, unbleached paper, such as brown paper bags and cardboard, composts readily and can enhance compost piles by absorbing excess moisture. Molded fiber packaging, made from recycled paper products like newsprint and cardboard, is gaining popularity due to its biodegradability and suitability for various applications.

However, heavily inked or coated papers, such as magazines and certain packaging, may contain synthetic additives that slow decomposition. Some ink formulations are soy-based and compostable, while others contain petroleum-based compounds that may introduce toxins into the compost.

Furthermore, papers treated with waterproof or grease-resistant coatings, such as those used for food packaging, may not break down effectively unless they utilize compostable bio-based coatings. Certifications from organizations like the Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI) help consumers identify which paper-based products meet rigorous compostability standards.

Advancements in Bio-Based Coatings and Treatments

Traditional paper products, especially those used in packaging, often incorporate plastic-based coatings to provide barriers against moisture and grease. These coatings can hinder recycling and composting efforts. However, according to new research, the consumption of biodegradable and compostable polymers for packaging will continue to grow at a faster rate than that of petrochemical-based thermoplastic materials, and innovative companies are developing bio-based coatings to address the challenge. 

“The global biodegradable and compostable packaging market is forecast to grow through to 2029 at more than twice the rate of growth for the packaging market as a whole,” said David Platt, author of The Future of Biodegradable and Compostable Packaging to 2029. “Demand is driven by the growing desire of consumers, brand owners and governments to replace single-use, fossil-based plastics with materials that do not contribute to plastic waste or landfill volumes.”

Work is being done to increase the degradability of polymers already on the market and introduce new products made from starch blends. Though the demand for biodegradable and compostable packaging is growing quickly, obstacles remain, including high cost relative to commodity plastics, the absence of worldwide facilities for recycling and composting bioplastics, and regulatory support.

The Future of Compostable Paper

The paper industry continues to innovate, developing coatings and treatments that enhance compostability while maintaining the functional benefits of traditional packaging. As businesses and consumers seek more sustainable alternatives to plastic, compostable paper solutions will play a crucial role in reducing waste. By choosing paper products and disposing of them properly (either through recycling or composting), we can help close the loop on paper waste and contribute to healthier soils and a cleaner environment. With ongoing advancements and responsible disposal practices, paper remains a renewable, sustainable choice in the fight against environmental waste.

At Two Sides North America, we aim to educate all types of consumers on the sustainability of paper, print and paper-based packaging. Through fact sheets, original research, and news that help its members incorporate information about the sustainability of print and paper into messaging that effectively reaches consumers.

 

 

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